shallower than 2000 m). These discussions reflect knowledge of the current literature and the experience and judgment of the researchers involved in this study. We finalise this review with a short discussion on protection and management methods. At present there is no direct disposal of pharmaceutical products in the deep ocean. Although humans have used the oceans for millennia, technological developments now allow exploitation of Ifremer, Brest, DEEP/LEP, Plouzane, France, Affiliation Potential impacts from mining massive sulphides include the physical destruction of the mined vent sites and their fauna, production of sediment plumes affecting filter feeders, changes in hydrothermal circulation at the active sites, wastewater and potential chemical pollution from equipment failure. buoys, rigs, mooring blocks and cables) is of some concern. In the past, the main human impact affecting deep-sea ecosystems was the dumping or disposal of litter into the oceans. Within EEZs there are many examples of protection areas. Cold-water corals: fishing activities and ocean acidification caused by climate change will be the major impacts affecting cold-water coral communities. A detailed review of known impacts and their effects is provided. However, no protection is in place for large accidents such as the recent (spring 2010) Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico where the effects to the deep-sea fauna were unknown at the time of writing. In addition, there is evidence of diseased animals being killed and their carcasses being burnt and sunk at sea. Finally, legislators and managers typically act upon concerns raised by evidence (i.e. The first effort in 1857 failed when the cable-dispensing machinery became disabled and cut the wire, but the cable was finally successfully connected in 1858 [81]. The shallowing of the CCCD has been predicted to leave the majority of deep-sea stony corals in water unsuitable for obtaining aragonite for building their skeletons [239]. Thus, … whale falls, kelp falls). Off New Zealand, almost one third of the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is closed to bottom trawling as “Benthic Protected Areas” (the majority of the seafloor area being deeper than current trawling practices allow) [168]. Since major changes in temperature, atmospheric CO2, oxygen and possibly methane have led to mass extinctions in the past it is likely that significant species loss will occur. As resources on land become exhausted, exploitation of the marine environment increases and, with it, so does extraction of the biological and mineral wealth of the deep sea. [93] showed that pharmaceutical wastes disposed of in the Puerto Rico Trench were acutely toxic to many marine invertebrates. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022588.g007. Moreover, there is increasing evidence of the accumulation of chemical pollutants of industrial origin, such as mercury, lead and persistent organic pollutants (e.g. This lesson introduces students to the different impacts that humans have on deep sea environments, challenging them to connect the link between human actions on land to remote deep-sea environments. A decline in the numbers of some species will also have a secondary effect on fish stocks in some circumstances (e.g. August 2, 2011 Environment 158 Views. Most animals that die at sea while being shipped die of scabby-mouth [84] and salmonellosis [85], and ‘slaughter at sea’ sometimes occurs [85]. LLRW, low-level radioactive waste; CFCs, chlorofluorocarbons; PAHs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The site was used for the disposal of industrial and municipal wastes from 1972 [69] and continued to receive sewage until 1992. Maury [81], and whaling is predicted to have restricted the distribution of whale-fall colonists [82], [83]. A new and stricter convention was negotiated in 1996, but did not enter into force until 2006 (http://www.imo.org). Note: Content may be edited for style and length. Manganese nodule mining may not occur for another 10–15 years, but it could ultimately be the largest scale human activity to impact the deep-sea floor directly. We continue, therefore, to discover new habitats and species, but the negative impacts of human activity appear to be much faster in reaching the great depths of our oceans. Furthermore, human activities on land have promulgated a third and perhaps more dangerous level of impact: increasing atmospheric CO2 emissions that have resulted in climate change [31] – including the warming of the ocean, stratification and the generation and expansion of hypoxia – and ocean acidification [32]. It is not intended to provide medical or other professional advice. This is an on-going problem for responsible fisheries, leading to devices such as bird-scarers, seal-exclusion grids, and regulations governing the discharge of offal. The levels of impact were classified as follows: Tables S1, S2 and S3 include the scaling for each individual impact in each habitat, the total and mean impact for each of the main categories (disposal, exploitation and climate change) in each habitat and a grand total and grand mean that include all impacts in each habitat for past, present and future respectively. Recovery of cold-water assemblages from fishing disturbance occurs slowly, even after fishing has ceased for 5–10 years there have been no signs of faunal recovery [154], [155]. Journal Article (Review) The deep sea, the largest ecosystem on Earth and one of the least studied, harbours high biodiversity and provides a wealth of resources. As technology offers increasing access to the deep sea, we are provided with opportunities to conduct experiments, generate time series and explore new settings. In July 2002, about 270,400 sheep died and where dumped at sea while en route to the Middle East [88]. The impacts were grouped in three major categories: waste and litter dumping, resource exploitation, and climate change. The routine dumping of many types of waste from ships was legally banned from 1972 onward (London Convention, 1972). For example, 70,000 sheep were dumped from a ship in the Indian Ocean in 1996. Synergies between different anthropogenic pressures and associated effects are discussed, indicating that most synergies are related to increased atmospheric CO2 and climate change effects. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Ships have been lost since humans first took to the sea. [92] found that Pseudomonas spp., reportedly common a decade earlier, were virtually absent from all samples taken from the dump site during a three year study, and an increase in Staphylococcus was evident. Physical disruption of sediments and intensified currents, release of high salinity and anoxic water during production process, loss of energy sources fuelling microbes at the base of seep food chains, altered habitat structure and introduced substrate are possible ecological effects of hydrate mining. Throughout the oceans, warming decreases oxygen solubility and increases stratification of seawater (enhanced by ice melt), which reduces vertical mixing and oxygen inputs. It is in these hydrothermal vents where the impact of mineral exploitation is likely to happen first. The grand total and grand mean impacts have been coded with bold and italics to highlight the ecosystems at higher risk (Tables S1, S2 and S3). They are used particularly in areas that are not fishable by trawl because of rocky outcrops, rugged terrain such as seamounts and canyons, or fisheries regulations. Hawaii). In 1967, Hessler and Sanders [4] documented remarkable levels of species diversity in the deep sea, with up to 365 species in a single macrofaunal sample. Chemical contamination of deep-sea sediments and their effect on the fauna is still mostly unstudied. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022588.s002. For of submersibles, almost one tonne of weight is discarded per dive (Y. Hublot, pers. train wheels), lead or cement. During the remainder of the current century, we predict that the major impact in the deep sea will be climate change (Figure 8C, Table S3), affecting the oceans globally through direct effects on the habitat and fauna as well as through synergies with other human activities. The deep sea is considered to expand from the end of the continental shelf at approximately 200-250 m depth to the great abyssal depths between 3000 and 6000 m, which may reach down to 11 km in areas such as the Mariana Trench. Given the multiple mechanisms at play, it is not surprising that reduced oxygenation of the ocean's interior has already been documented [reviewed in 248]. Deep-sea exploration began a little over 150 years ago, initially promoted by the 19th century debates on whether life occurred at depths below 300 m [1].The deep sea is considered to start at about 200 m depth, at the shelf break, where a clear change of fauna from shallow to deep water is observed [2]. The main difficulty with deep-sea bioprospecting is the technology required to collect and preserve animal tissues in a way biological materials can be extracted and exploited. In some cases we have designated no evidence available and an unlikely impact (NA), while in other cases, no evidence is available and potential impact is unknown (?). The increased likelihood of mining at hydrothermal vents has led to recent activity among different working groups aimed at developing guidelines for protection and identifying where knowledge is needed to ensure effective environmental management of mining. Fish often aggregate on continental slopes near carbonate hard-grounds associated with methane seepage, or near corals that settle on these carbonates. 75], [76] but the attraction of both seabirds and marine mammals (in particular seals) has become an important issue worldwide. Little research has been conducted on the influence of the chemical composition of a hard substratum on seabed communities. Closely associated with increased atmospheric CO2 and global warming is decreased pH in the water column. The oceans cover 71% of our planet, with over half with a depth greater than 3000 m. Although our knowledge is still very limited, we know that the deep ocean contains a diversity of habitats and ecosystems, supports high biodiversity, and harbors important biological and mineral resources. Other than the obvious lack of oxygen, the most apparent and studied danger of Ocean stratification decreases nutrient availability and surface productivity, consequently diminishing the flux to the deep-sea bed. Previous studies have reviewed different aspects of anthropogenic impact in the deep sea , , , , but to date little information is available on the direct and long-term effects of human activities in bathyal and abyssal ecosystems. Reduction in subsidies in many countries, rising fuel costs, and recent introduction of stricter regulations mean that industry must perceive the prospects of deep-water fishing as highly favourable before engaging in it. The waters deeper than 200 m form the largest environment on Earth with a volume of 1368×106 km3 covering an area of 360 million km2, equivalent to about 50% of the surface of the Earth, and have an average depth of 3800 m, with a maximum depth of 10,924 m in the Mariana Trench. Yes There is also evidence that, as oil exploration moves into deeper water, cold-water corals colonise the legs of oil rigs [211], [212]. Nonetheless, it is clear that effective management of the environmental impacts of commercial scale mining requires substantially more information concerning species ranges, sensitivity to sediment burial and the scale dependence of recolonisation processes in abyssal seafloor communities. This existing operation, and another in the Snøhvit gas field in the Barents Sea that stores 700,000 tonnes CO2 per year at depths of 320 m, are relatively small-scale when compared with proposed industrial scale CO2 disposal, which would store about 1000 times this amount. In particular, industrial scale CO2 disposal has the potential to create a “scavenger” sink, attracting and killing ever larger numbers of deep-sea scavengers drawn to an accumulation of dead biomass within the influence of the disposal plume [123]. Levin et al. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022588.g003. PLoS ONE 6(8): com.). Furthermore, measures are in place to protect seep communities in the Gulf of Mexico from impact caused by oil and gas extraction, in particular from effects of drilling discharges and anchor placements. This paper provides scientific expert judgement and a semi-quantitative analysis of past, present and future impacts of human-related activities on global deep-sea habitats within three categories: disposal, exploitation and climate change. The biological communities associated with the particular chemical environment at, and surrounding, active hydrothermal vents have been extensively studied in recent decades [e.g. Each of these activities will benefit from application of basic ecological and conservation theory [293]. here. Two deep water wrecks, one in the eastern Atlantic (Francois Vieljeux) and one in the Mediterranean (SS Persia) are both somewhat surprisingly host to chemosynthetic fauna of the type normally found at cold seep sites [114], [115]. For example, climate-driven dense shelf water cascading events, such as the ones observed in the Gulf of Lions and other regions in the world, transport large amounts of sediment from the shelf and margin down to the lower slope and abyss [110], [111], where chemical contaminants can accumulate. The last great wilderness: Human impact on the deep sea. Most gas hydrates are buried beneath a thick sediment cap on the sea floor below 250 m. In places where gas hydrates intercept the sediment surface, or where dissociation of methane occurs, methane seep ecosystems are well developed. Yes In the deep sea, such bioprospecting is in its infancy with reports generally suggesting only where suitable materials could be obtained [226]. To illustrate the scale, in World War II, for example, during the battle of the Atlantic, more than 175 military ships were lost and more than 3500 merchant British ships (excluding other allies) were sunk, many of them in deep water [112] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic_(1939%E2%80%931945)#Outcomes). One of the strongest arguments against offshore mining is that the environmental risks are too high, given that deep-sea ecosystems are among the most undiscovered places on Earth. Yet, the EEZs constitute less than 36% of the global ocean. This paper has been prepared in the framework of the SYNDEEP-Census of Marine Life deep-sea synthesis project. Other large closures or restrictions have recently occurred in the deep sea off Alaska, Hawaii, the Azores, the North Atlantic Ocean [169] and the North Pacific. The main problem is that we still know very little of what we call the deep sea, making it difficult to evaluate accurately the real impact of industrial activities, litter accumulation and climate change in the deep sea habitats. Current models predict an oxygen decline of 1% to 7% in the next 100 years [248] with an expansion of pelagic and benthic OMZs [249]. It may be that only at the higher trophic levels are these contaminants concentrated enough to be toxic at present, but the accumulation of chemicals in deep waters and deep sediments, and the bioaccumulation in organisms might have a significant impact in the future. A, the holothurian Psychropotes semperiana over manganese nodules on the Kaplan abyssal plain in the Pacific Ocean (Photo courtesy of Ifremer - Nautile/Nodinaut, 2004); B, sampling a vent chimney off Papua New Guinea during the environmental assessment conducted by Nautilus Minerals before exploitation of massive sulphides (Photo courtesy of Nautilus Minerals). 5: major anthropogenic impact including death of all life at the point of impact. Anthropogenic radionuclides are often elevated in deep-sea sediment [96] and midwater organisms [97] but the discovery of radioactive elements in holothurians at 5000 m from weapons testing [98] was not readily explained until the understanding of vertical flux characteristics of surface-derived phytodetritus [99]. Expert assessment of estimated future human impacts on the deep sea. Physical disturbance, imposed by mining, trawling, waste disposal, or oil and gas extraction, tests the resilience of communities weakened by physiological stress from interacting climate factors (temperature, hypoxia or acidification). Division of Marine Science and Conservation, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Beaufort, North Carolina, United States of America. Deep-water corals are one of the most important taxa to be affected, both because of their contribution to deep-water diversity and because of their structural role in providing habitat to a variety of other species [237]. Major occurrences of clinker may be found off large ports where steamships cleaned their boilers (Tyler pers. The immediate impact of the spill on the deep-sea ecosystem was mostly local in the Gulf of Mexico. In particular, the accumulation of plastics on the deep seafloor, which degrade into microplastics, called mermaid tears, that can be ingested by the fauna, has consequences still unknown but predicted to be important. Aragonite, high magnesium calcite and calcite are the main calcium carbonate crystals made by these organisms and, because high magnesium calcite and aragonite are more soluble than calcite, the species that use these compounds – such as scleractinian corals and echinoderms – are more vulnerable and will be the first to be affected [233]–[236]. These activities were banned in 1972, but their consequences are still present today, together with the continuing illegal disposal of litter from ships and the arrival of litter and contaminants from coastal areas and river discharges. The main effects of oil exploration and exploitation are on the continental margin habitats, including sedimentary slopes, seeps, vents (e.g. Highly erosive deep-sea storms, which may affect 10% of the deep-sea floor, can transport laterally sediment loads along with benthic fauna [42]. The Deep Gulf of Mexico Benthos Program recorded and classified refuse in the abyss [64] as well as chemical contamination in sediments [67] and fauna [68]. Prior to the 1980s, Puerto Rico gave tax advantages to pharmaceutical companies and their waste material was dumped in the trench at about 6000 m depth approximately 40 miles to the north of the island [89] (Table S1). Scientific research using moorings, submersibles and ROVs also contributes to deep-sea litter by the dropping of ballast weights (often solid plates or pellets of mild steel), although these contributions are small in relation to other sources of litter. Colonisation of deep-sea wrecks is difficult to quantify. scientific understanding) and therefore usually follow after science, with the added issue of slow response governed by bureaucratic and political practices that can take years. National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand, Affiliation Figure 7 was made by Erika Mackay (NIWA, NZ). The findings published in the journal PLoS ONE reveal that the area disturbed by bottom trawling commercial fishing fleets exceeds the combined physical footprint of other major human activities considered. 3: moderate impact causing possible reduction in biodiversity and potential reduction in biomass and productivity on a local basis. When this occurs, the dead animals might be dumped into the ocean, contributing occasional large pulses of organic material to the seafloor, similar to other natural large-organic falls (e.g. The Kermadec Benthic Protected area in New Zealand, which includes vent sites, is closed to bottom fishing but the vents are not protected from mining. Fishing profitability is often considered higher near coral concentrations than elsewhere [162]. A, the anemone Phelliactis robusta, from 2311 m in the Eastern Whittard Canyon, SW Ireland, taken during cruise JC10, Dive 65, of the HERMES project (Photo courtesy of P. Tyler, Uni. Longline fisheries have also worked progressively deeper in recent decades. (Insets) Highly impacted regions in the Eastern Caribbean (B), the North Sea (C), and the Japanese waters (D) and one of the least impacted regions, in northern Australia and the Torres Strait (E). Is the Subject Area "Deep sea" applicable to this article? However, it has been shown that these inactive vents support chemoautotrophically-based food webs [198] and they are located within active vent fields. CFCs, chemical contamination by chlorofluorocarbons; Chemical cont. Some of these effects include an increase in water temperature that can cause important changes in stratification of the water column, accumulation of nutrients, and oceanic water circulation with corresponding alteration of hypoxia and faunal community structure. com.). Unfortunately, these experiments do not allow prediction of the likelihood of species extinctions from nodule mining because the typical geographical ranges of species living within the nodule regions are unknown. Nonetheless, profound changes in ecosystem goods, services and values of the deep sea can be expected as a consequence of dumping iron into the ocean [135]. In the past, the main human impact affecting deep-sea ecosystems was the dumping or disposal of litter into the oceans. However, the political controversy this created ensured that such structures may well never be disposed of in the deep sea [210]. The disposal of sewage and dredge spoil will add to the effects of hypoxia and nutrient loading related to climate-change, leading to changes in faunal community structure. Therefore, MPAs and closed areas that protect the deep seafloor and associated vulnerable communities exist both for EEZs and international waters. Yes However, the amount of litter varies in different regions and no dedicated studies have been conducted to estimate the extent of litter accumulation in deep-sea habitats or to assess the effect of different litter types in the habitat and its effects on the fauna [51]. Effects of acidification, deoxygenation, warming and localised methane release on deep-sea ecosystems remain key research agenda items. Between 1970 and 1990, the equivalent of 18 ships and 65,000 tons of shipping sank on the high seas (excluding coastal waters) per year [25]. Loss of important deep-water fisheries habitats and thus fishery resources are predicted to result from these climate effects [253, Whitney and Sinclair, unpublished data]. Levels of impacts are assessed based on both the amount of change to vent ecosystems and … https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022588.g004. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/08/110801171300.htm (accessed February 13, 2021). A first draft table of impact level was created, with the estimated impact level scored from 0 to 5 based on the discussions held during the workshop, for past, present and future impacts. broad scope, and wide readership – a perfect fit for your research every time. Although there was an active programme in the 1980s to assess the feasibility and potential impacts of high-level radioactive waste disposal in the deep sea, political considerations stopped this programme and no intentional disposal of any radioactive waste occurs in the ocean today (Tables S1 and S2). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022588.s003. This destabilisation would release methane that may reach the atmosphere with a positive feedback to global climate and altered distribution of cold seep ecosystems [217]. The results of this review and synthesis are especially timely, given increasing interests in mining the deep-sea floor, including mining of rare earth elements, a crucial resource for novel electronic equipment and green-energy technologies. [71] showed that there were clear faunal changes at the seabed. tins, cans) (Figure 2A–C) [24], [52]–[55]. This led to changes in nematode biodiversity, community structure and ecosystem function [281], [282], and the observed increase in food availability resulted in an increase in metazoan abundance [283], [284]. By the end of the 20th Century, the deep sea was recognised as the largest environment on Earth containing numerous sub-habitats, with unique abiotic and biological characteristics and supporting a particularly high biodiversity [24]. The high seas are still lacking a fully coordinated approach or network of conservation areas [164]. Neptune Minerals have focused its exploratory activities in the New Zealand area, with exploration licenses also in Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu and Micronesia. e22588. Their model shows that coastal ecosystems receive the greatest cumulative impact, while polar regions and deep waters seem to be the least impacted [33]. A series of facts (proximity of the site to the oil spill, depth, clear evidence of recent impact, and three decades of background data in this area) suggest that the impact observed caused exposure of the biological community to oil, dispersant, extremely depleted oxygen, or some combination of these effects of the spill (C. Fisher, pers. In the OSPAR area (northeastern Atlantic), the spatial extent of bottom trawling is orders of magnitude greater than that of submarine cables, waste disposal and oil and gas exploitation [27]. Two main companies have developed exploratory studies and environmental impact assessments: Nautilus Minerals Inc. and Neptune Minerals (Figure 5B). At present the pH of seawater is 0.1 units lower than that in the early 1900s, and by 2100 it is estimated to decrease by 0.4 to 0.5 units [230]–[232]. Human activities are, however increasingly affecting deep-sea habitats, resulting in the potential for biodiversity loss and, with this, the loss of many goods and services provided by deep-sea ecosystems. The analysis of the current article is based on the results of the Census of Marine Life projects, synthesized during SYNDEEP, and also from data published previously in the scientific literature. Over time, estimated global reserves have decreased from 530×1015 g of carbon (530,000 Gt C) [214] to a minimal possible estimate of 0.1×1015 g of carbon (100 Gt C) [215]. Oxygen minimum zones abutting margins, characterized by specialized benthic fauna. The disposal of radioactive waste has been much more difficult to monitor. The analysis of the current article is based on the results of the Census of Marine Life projects, synthesized during SYNDEEP, and also from data published previously in the scientific literature. Over the past decade, management and protection measures have been developed by coastal states and regional fisheries management organizations, recently in response to UN General Assembly resolutions. Although the communities found at habitats such as seamounts, cold-water coral reefs and cold seeps may be more vulnerable than sediment-dwelling assemblages, the impacts of fishing on seamounts and cold seeps have rarely been assessed, with significant exceptions such as in New Zealand and Australian waters. Census of Marine Life. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) defines marine litter as “any persistent, manufactured or processed solid material discarded, disposed of or abandoned in the marine and coastal environment”. This is a process in progress and the effectiveness of the approaches cannot yet be fully assessed. [33] indicates that no area in the ocean is completely unaffected by anthropogenic impact and that most areas (41%) are affected by multiple drivers. This density was similar or probably larger in the 19th century, as depicted in the whale charts published by M.F. However, the speed of current hydrographic change is unprecedented, and thus we enter unknown territory with regard to predicting future changes. Deep‐sea coral specimens for this study were collected east of the Mississippi Delta in the Gulf of Mexico between 2003 and 2009 at the head of De Soto Canyon and in the Viosca Knoll (VK) region (Figure 1 and Table 1) as part of several ongoing deep‐sea coral ecosystem … The calcium carbonate compensation depth (CCCD) varies with ocean, being the shallowest in Antarctic waters, but as CO2 builds up the CCCD will move toward the surface. Now new research shows that fishery managers may have grossly underestimated the global impacts of trawling for decades. OSPAR (Commission for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic) has mapped chemical warfare components in the northeastern Atlantic [116] and a pioneer study (RED COD) has been conducted in a warfare material dumping site in the Adriatic [117].

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